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The ongoing decay of urban stone structures creates a need for smart materials that enhance durability over the life cycle. Biotechnologies based on fungus Pleurotus ostreatus are explored as a method to strengthen substrates prone to destruction in this study. Their ability to alter properties and adapt to extreme conditions provides the basis for self-healing, strong, resilient, and environmentally friendly biocomposites. Some fungal strains are known to precipitate calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and to heal cracks in concrete, while Pleurotus ostreatus stimulates calcium oxalate (CaOx) formation. The study investigates whether these microorganisms are able to facilitate carbonate biomineralization without compromising their ability to act as natural sealants. The resulting Mycokarst material, formed from CaCO3-based karst soil, rice, dolomite flour, and Pleurotus ostreatus mycelium, demonstrated cyclic self‑healing and strength gain. It promotes self-strengthening of weak karst soils and stone structures through the formation of mycelial and limestone frameworks without external intervention. Mycokarst represents a new generation of smart biocomposites and offers a green approach to protecting urban mineral-based infrastructure from decay, while reducing CO2 emissions and environmental impact and minimizing human and technological interference with construction and restoration.
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26. Zakil F.A., Xuan L.H., Zaman N., Alan N.I., Salahutheen N.A.A., Mohd S.M.S., Isha R. Growth performance and mineral analysis of Pleurotus ostreatus from various agricultural wastes mixed with rubber tree sawdust in Malaysia. Bioresource Technology Reports. 2022. 17. P. 1 – 8. DOI: 10.1016/j.biteb.2021.100873
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29. Budnikova A.A. Mycokarst interdisciplinary biotechnology: effects of introducing in construction field and prospects. EurasiaScience: Collection of articles from the LXXIV international scientific and practical conference. Moscow: OOO "Aktualnost.RF". December 30-31, 2025. P. 56 – 57.
30. Budnikova A.A. Self-healing stone technology Mycokarst: the possibilities of introducing into the Russian bioeconomic development strategy. Russian science in the modern world: Collection of articles from the LXVIII international scientific and practical conference. Moscow: OOO "Aktualnost.RF". November 30, 2025. P. 164 – 165.
2. Onafeso O., Olusola A. Urban Stone Decay and Sustainable Built Environment in the Niger River Basin. Landforms and Processes in Cities. 2018. P. 261 – 276. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-811951-8.00013-8
3. Sirt C.E., Bilecen K., Akoglu K.G.; Sahin G.N. Potential of biological mortar for micro-crack remediation of calcareous stones in historical monuments. TUBA-KED: Turkish Academy of Sciences, Journal of Cultural Inventory. 2021. 24. P. 223. DOI: 10.22520/tubaked2021.24.012
4. Parise M. Chapter 110 – Sinkholes. Encyclopedia of Caves (Third Edition). 2019. P. 934 – 942. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-814124-3.00110-2
5. Inozemtsev S.S., Do Toan Chong. The status and development prospects of self-healing road materials technology. MGSU Bulletin. 2020. 15(10). P. 1407 – 1424. DOI: 10.22227/1997-0935.2020.10.1407-1424
6. Inozemtsev S.S., Do T.Ch., Korolev E.V. Domestic experience of research in the field of building materials with self-healing function. Bulletin of BSTU named after V.G. Shukhov. 2022. 1. P. 8 – 22. DOI: 10.34031/2071-7318-2021-7-2-8-22
7. Jonkers H.M. Bacteria-based self-healing concrete. Heron. 2011. 1/2. 56. P. 1 – 12.
8. Budnikova A.A. Mycokarst: self-healing karst sinkholes based on fungal spores. Environmental Safety in the Gas Industry: VI International Conference and Exhibition. Moscow: Research Institute of Natural Gases and Gas Technologies – Gazprom VNIIGAZ LLC. December 3-4, 2019. P. 31.
9. Appels F.V.W., Camere S., Montalti M., Karana E., Jansen K.M.B., Dijksterhuis J., Krijgsheld P., Wosten H.A.B. Fabrication factors influencing mechanical, moisture- and water-related properties of mycelium-based composites. Materials & Design. 2019. 161. P. 64 – 71. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2018.11.027
10. McGaw J., Andrianopoulos A., Liuti A. Tangled Tales of Mycelium and Architecture: Learning From Failure. Frontiers in Built Environment. 2022. 8. P. 1 – 8. DOI: doi.org/10.3389/fbuil.2022.805292
11. Ross P. Your Rotten Future Will Be Great. The Routledge Companion to Biology in Art and Architecture. 2016. 1. P. 370 – 403. DOI: 10.4324/9781315687896
12. Williams E., Cenian K., Golsteijn L., Morris B., Scullin M.L. Life cycle assessment of MycoWorks’ Reishi™: the first low-carbon and biodegradable alternative leather. Environmental Sciences Europe. 2022. 34 (120). P. 1 – 18. DOI: 10.1186/s12302-022-00689-x
13. Soh E., Teoh J.H., Leong B., Xing T., Le Ferrand H. 3D printing of mycelium engineered living materials using a waste-based ink and non-sterile conditions. Materials & Design. 2023. 236. P. 1 – 11. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2023.112481
14. Gan J.K., Soh E., Saeid N., Javadian A., Hebel D.E. Le Ferrand H. Temporal characterization of biocycles of mycelium‑bound composites made from bamboo and Pleurotus ostreatus for indoor usage. Scientific Reports. 2022. 12. P. 1 – 12. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-24070-3
15. Hoa Ha Thi, Wang Chun-Li. The Effects of Temperature and Nutritional Conditions on Mycelium Growth of Two Oyster Mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus cystidiosus). Mycobiology. 2015. 43(1). P. 14 – 23. DOI: 10.5941/MYCO.2015.43.1.14
16. Jin C., Yu R., Shui Z. Fungi: A Neglected Candidate for the Application of Self-Healing Concrete. Frontiers in Built Environment. 2018. 4 (62). P. 1 – 8. DOI: 10.3389/fbuil.2018.00062
17. Menon R.R., Luo J., Chen X., Zhou H., Liu Z., Zhou G., Zhang N., Jin C. Screening of Fungi for Potential Application of Self-Healing Concrete. Scientific Reports. 2019. 9. P. 1 – 12. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-39156-8
18. Luo J., Chen X., Crump J., Zhou H., Davies D.G., Zhou G., Zhang N., Jin C. Interactions of fungi with concrete: Significant importance for bio-based self-healing concrete. Construction and Building Materials. 2018. 164. P. 275 – 285. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.12.233.
19. Van Wylick A., Rahier H., Laet L., Peeters E. Conditions for CaCO3 Biomineralization by Trichoderma Reesei with the Perspective of Developing Fungi-Mediated Self-Healing Concrete. Global challenges. 2024. 8. P. 1 – 8. DOI: 10.1002/gch2.202300160.
20. Van Wylick A., Brouwers E., Rahier H., Laet L., Peeters E. Encapsulation of Trichoderma reesei and Neurospora crassa in calcium alginate capsules for fungi-mediated self-healing concrete: An explorative study on the protocol, survival of the organisms and CaCO3 biomineralization. Developments in the Built Environment. 2024. 18. P. 1 – 10. DOI: 10.1016/j.dibe.2024.100445
21. Wong P.Y., Mal J., Sandak A., Luo L., Jian J., Pradhan N. Advances in microbial self-healing concrete: A critical review of mechanisms, developments, and future directions. Science of The Total Environment. 2024. 947. P. 1 – 16. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174553
22. Ahmad A., Rautaray D., Sastry M. Biogenic Calcium Carbonate: Calcite Crystals of Variable Morphology by the Reaction of Aqueous Ca2+ Ions with Fungi. Advanced Functional Materials. 2004. 11 (14). P. 1075 – 1080. DOI: 10.1002/adfm.200400005
23. Julian A.V., Umagat M.R., Reyes R.G. Mineral Composition, Growth Performance and Yield of Pleurotus ostreatus on Rice Straw-Based Substrate Enriched with Natural Calcium Sources. Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions: Proceedings of Euro-Mediterranean Conference for Environmental Integration (EMCEI-1), Tunisia. 2017. P. 1573 – 1575.
24. Ogidi C.O., Akindulureni E.D., Agbetola O.Y., Akinyele B.J. Calcium Bioaccumulation by Pleurotus ostreatus and Lentinus squarrosulus Cultivated on Palm Tree Wastes Supplemented with Calcium-Rich Animal Wastes or Calcium Salts. Waste and Biomass Valorization. 2019. 11. P. 4235 – 4244. DOI: 10.1007/s12649-019-00760-4
25. Guggiari M., Bloque R., Aragno M., Verrecchia E., Job D., Junier P. Experimental calcium-oxalate crystal production and dissolution by selected wood-rot fungi. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation. 2011. 65 (6). P. 803 – 809. DOI: 10.1016/j.ibiod.2011.02.012
26. Zakil F.A., Xuan L.H., Zaman N., Alan N.I., Salahutheen N.A.A., Mohd S.M.S., Isha R. Growth performance and mineral analysis of Pleurotus ostreatus from various agricultural wastes mixed with rubber tree sawdust in Malaysia. Bioresource Technology Reports. 2022. 17. P. 1 – 8. DOI: 10.1016/j.biteb.2021.100873
27. Dedousi M., Melanouri E-M., Diamantopoulou P. Carposome productivity of Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus eryngii growing on agro-industrial residues enriched with nitrogen, calcium salts and oils. Carbon Resources Conversion. 2023. 6 (2). P. 150 – 165. DOI: 10.1016/j.crcon.2023.02.001
28. Budnikova A.A. Healing stone objects with fungal spores: Mycokarst green technology. Advances in Science and Technology: Collection of articles from the LXXIII international scientific and practical conference. Moscow: OOO "Aktualnost.RF". December 15, 2025. P. 170 – 172.
29. Budnikova A.A. Mycokarst interdisciplinary biotechnology: effects of introducing in construction field and prospects. EurasiaScience: Collection of articles from the LXXIV international scientific and practical conference. Moscow: OOO "Aktualnost.RF". December 30-31, 2025. P. 56 – 57.
30. Budnikova A.A. Self-healing stone technology Mycokarst: the possibilities of introducing into the Russian bioeconomic development strategy. Russian science in the modern world: Collection of articles from the LXVIII international scientific and practical conference. Moscow: OOO "Aktualnost.RF". November 30, 2025. P. 164 – 165.
Budnikova A.A., Topchiy D.V. Toward protection of urban stone structures from decay using pleurotus ostreatus: mycokarst self-healing material. Construction Materials and Products. 2026. 9 (2). 4. https://doi.org/10.58224/2618-7183-2026-9-2-4